The Human Diet Before 10,000 BC
Although there is still much to be learned about human life and diet before 10,000 BC, we do know that life was short. One was lucky to live beyond the age of 40. Estimates show that many prehistoric humans fell victim to extreme cold, malnutrition, food poisoning and vitamin deficiencies, among other causes.
It is widely agreed that the effects of malnutrition and vitamin deficiencies can be attributed to the lack of a varied diet. While some locations allowed for some variety, such as meat from hunting, mollusks and shellfish from the oceans, and fish from lakes and rivers, these varieties only consisted of different types of meat. Fruits and veggies had not yet found their way into the diet. Further, when weather and the terrain became more hospitable, evidence shows that humans often depended on one animal for sustenance. Evidence also points us to believe that even the few mixed-diet people would have preferred meat to wild plants, as it provided more sustenance to larger numbers of people.
It is clear that gathering did occur prior to 10,000 BC. However, while animal bones are a good indicator of hunting patterns, gathered food products do not leave such a 'clear' trail.
It is widely agreed that the effects of malnutrition and vitamin deficiencies can be attributed to the lack of a varied diet. While some locations allowed for some variety, such as meat from hunting, mollusks and shellfish from the oceans, and fish from lakes and rivers, these varieties only consisted of different types of meat. Fruits and veggies had not yet found their way into the diet. Further, when weather and the terrain became more hospitable, evidence shows that humans often depended on one animal for sustenance. Evidence also points us to believe that even the few mixed-diet people would have preferred meat to wild plants, as it provided more sustenance to larger numbers of people.
It is clear that gathering did occur prior to 10,000 BC. However, while animal bones are a good indicator of hunting patterns, gathered food products do not leave such a 'clear' trail.
The First Cooked Meals
Before the deliberate use of fire, believed to be in 1,400,000 BC in Africa or in 500,000 BC in Asia, humans ate their food raw. With the use of fire for warmth may have also come the 'accidental' discovery of cooking. One story builds off the idea that an animal's dwelling, such as pigs, may have accidentally been set afire. Just beneath the ashes, a pig roast may have been waiting. Other techniques that may have been used include setting the meat by the fire, wrapping it in leaves to protect the meat from flames, and spit-roasting.
We do know that cooking meat, and cooking meat longer, makes it easier to chew and easier to digest. It is this notion that may have lead our ancestors to cook previously hard to digest plants.
We do know that cooking meat, and cooking meat longer, makes it easier to chew and easier to digest. It is this notion that may have lead our ancestors to cook previously hard to digest plants.
The Gestation Period of Modern Civilization: 7,000 BC to 3,000 BC
It was during this time that a very distinctive climate change occurred. While changes like this had occurred before, humans were more evolved and ready to utilize the changes taking place before them. During this time it is believed that humans began to realize their relative control over their environment. Gatherers may have realized, for instance, that a small radish returned to the soil may continue to grow and produce a larger abundance later, or that a single clove of garlic could turn into a large bunch. Hunters started realizing certain needs of their prey. They could then entice them closer to their dwelling for an easier kill. It is also believed that this is the time when man's best friend,' the dog, was domesticated as a way to supplement a hunter's resources, such as his sense of smell and herding abilities.
The better utilization of resources contributed to an improvement in human health. With increased nutrition and some increases in food supply, humans were able to live longer. Some believe that this resulted in higher birth rates and higher mortality.
Better use of resources, a possibly increasing population, and continued changes in climate launched humankind into an even more prolific era. As the climate continued to warm, faster growing plants began to emerge. Some of these plants were wild wheat and barley. Fields of wild grain as dense as cultivated grain has been found in parts of Turkey as recently as the 1960's. The archeologist J.R. Harlan was able to harvest two pounds of cleaned grain within one hour. He then estimated that a family of six could have harvested enough wild wheat in three weeks to last them a year (assuming just under a pound of grain per head per day). This harvest, however, would have had to occur within a short window of time, perhaps within just a few weeks. Therefore, it is assumed that settlements, which started out as open-air camps, would have developed around these fields waiting for the right harvest time.
Just before, and a little during, this time, families and tribes would have a home base, such as a cave, for the winter. Hunters would do their best to bring most of their kill back. What they could not carry they would 'store', as the meat would most likely be frozen or quite chilled. They would come back for these reserves when they could. Like the meat, this grain could also be quite heavy, possibly weighing up to a ton. With increased populations in the area around the wild grain, it would not make sense to leave their grain behind for a second trip. Instead, these early tribes began to make their more permanent dwellings around the fields. In Israel as early as 9,000 BC we can see evidence of villages sustained by intensive gathering and hunting. This intensive gathering can be seen as a next step closer to cultivation.
The better utilization of resources contributed to an improvement in human health. With increased nutrition and some increases in food supply, humans were able to live longer. Some believe that this resulted in higher birth rates and higher mortality.
Better use of resources, a possibly increasing population, and continued changes in climate launched humankind into an even more prolific era. As the climate continued to warm, faster growing plants began to emerge. Some of these plants were wild wheat and barley. Fields of wild grain as dense as cultivated grain has been found in parts of Turkey as recently as the 1960's. The archeologist J.R. Harlan was able to harvest two pounds of cleaned grain within one hour. He then estimated that a family of six could have harvested enough wild wheat in three weeks to last them a year (assuming just under a pound of grain per head per day). This harvest, however, would have had to occur within a short window of time, perhaps within just a few weeks. Therefore, it is assumed that settlements, which started out as open-air camps, would have developed around these fields waiting for the right harvest time.
Just before, and a little during, this time, families and tribes would have a home base, such as a cave, for the winter. Hunters would do their best to bring most of their kill back. What they could not carry they would 'store', as the meat would most likely be frozen or quite chilled. They would come back for these reserves when they could. Like the meat, this grain could also be quite heavy, possibly weighing up to a ton. With increased populations in the area around the wild grain, it would not make sense to leave their grain behind for a second trip. Instead, these early tribes began to make their more permanent dwellings around the fields. In Israel as early as 9,000 BC we can see evidence of villages sustained by intensive gathering and hunting. This intensive gathering can be seen as a next step closer to cultivation.
The Next 2,000 Years
The next 2,000 years really demonstrate the shift from gathering to cultivating. Through processes of trial and error, villagers may have discovered that if they harvested too much grain, there may not be enough grain the following year. Perhaps they would then leave a few ears on some stalks. This would have likely resulted in more grain, but in uneven, patchy spots. The next logical step would be to spread some of the seeds evenly by hand. It was this very complicated, history-filled, yet simple step that transformed hunter-gatherers into the wonderful FARMERS we have today!
Early Grain Usage
Grain 3,000 to 10,000 years ago was not the same as it is today. The part of barley and wheat that humans are most interested in is the embryo, or the "germ". This is encased by a starchy mass that is attached to a thin, tough coat of bran. A harsh outer sheath, the chaff, and clumps of sheathed seeds then surround the germ and this bran. When grain was cleaned to be later prepared for consumption, the edible part, the germ, has to be separated from the chaff. In these older, wilder versions of grain, the seed and the chaff would have been much more reluctant to part. The option most likely used to get this separation would have been to toast or parch the ears to make the chaff fragile enough to be loosened. What was not loosened would probably have been ground between stones.
Archeologists then began to wonder how this rough grain might have been cooked. Since the grain could not be cooked on an open fire, it is likely that it was made into some sort of porridge. This would be an easy way to feed a large group of people, as communal feeding was the norm until recently. Another idea is that there was deliberate toasting of the grain and chaff. This would make the grain into a digestible form without the intensive labor needed for pit-boiled porridge. After the grain was toasted, it would simply be rubbed clean and then pounded into course flour. If water was added, a sticky dough would be produced that could be eaten like it was or made into a flat cake on the hearthstone.
Some refer to this doughy substance as the first 'convenience food'. It was easily transportable ready-mixed, or water could be added along the way. It was also the staple that is now so identifiable across many cultures. One can see the resemblance of the Mexican tortilla, the Indian chapatti, the Scots oatcake, the Norwegian flatbread, and the Ethiopian injera. The main difference is that they all start with a different grain, making the end product in itself seem so different as well. However, they are all descendents of this Neolithic bread previously described. The emergence of water and fireproof containers expanded a cook's possibility even further. A cook could now stew and boil. They could bake good flatbreads. They now had another resource with which to invent a number of new dishes and improve upon old ones, spurring the human desire to yet find more ways to improve upon their diets.
Archeologists then began to wonder how this rough grain might have been cooked. Since the grain could not be cooked on an open fire, it is likely that it was made into some sort of porridge. This would be an easy way to feed a large group of people, as communal feeding was the norm until recently. Another idea is that there was deliberate toasting of the grain and chaff. This would make the grain into a digestible form without the intensive labor needed for pit-boiled porridge. After the grain was toasted, it would simply be rubbed clean and then pounded into course flour. If water was added, a sticky dough would be produced that could be eaten like it was or made into a flat cake on the hearthstone.
Some refer to this doughy substance as the first 'convenience food'. It was easily transportable ready-mixed, or water could be added along the way. It was also the staple that is now so identifiable across many cultures. One can see the resemblance of the Mexican tortilla, the Indian chapatti, the Scots oatcake, the Norwegian flatbread, and the Ethiopian injera. The main difference is that they all start with a different grain, making the end product in itself seem so different as well. However, they are all descendents of this Neolithic bread previously described. The emergence of water and fireproof containers expanded a cook's possibility even further. A cook could now stew and boil. They could bake good flatbreads. They now had another resource with which to invent a number of new dishes and improve upon old ones, spurring the human desire to yet find more ways to improve upon their diets.
The Domestication of Animals
This proliferation of grain not only attracted humans. Grain, coupled with a warming climate and opening forests invited a number of herbivorous animals as well. As the main staple of their diet was now under threat, settlers had the options of driving the invaders out, or, perhaps, bringing them in.
The wild sheep and goat were likely the first animals to be domesticated. It is believed they were at least partially domesticated just after 9,000 BC in parts of present day Romania and Iraq. Not only were goats and sheep comfort loving and quick to breed, they were also very destructive in the fields. A sheep could clear the weight of one hundred pounds of greenery in one week. This destructive nature may have also been a valuable asset for clearing new land. The necessity for more and more green food meant herders would have had to keep their sheep on the move in search of more food.
The pig would arrive on the scene roughly 2,000 years later. Since pigs could not digest straw, leaves, twigs or grass like the ruminants, they were not a threat to the fields. Further, since they did enjoy the same food as humans, villagers had to assure a surplus of food before sharing with the pig.
The cow was the last of the four major food animals to be domesticated. It is believed that this took place in Macedonia or Turkey some time between 6,100 BC and 5,800 BC. If the ancestral version of the cow, which died out in the seventeenth century, were anything like our modern version, it would be agile and fiery. These characteristics may have been brought under control by close penning, poor feeding, and with the males, castration.
As animal domestication continued, and settlers learned more about their new furry friends, they realized the animals could provide them with many goods. Apart from meat, the goat provided glossy, waterproof hair and skin that acted as the first waterproof container. The sheep would supply considerable amounts of fat used for cooking and medicinal salves, as well as wool. A pig provided bristles as well as lard and skin. Finally, the cow would provide strong, rough skin and dung that would fuel their fire. However, the benefits of domestication would not stop here. Early humans soon learned that these animals could be used to sow seeds into the soil, thresh the grain, and later down the road, pull a plough. These transforming farmers had found their first power tools.
The wild sheep and goat were likely the first animals to be domesticated. It is believed they were at least partially domesticated just after 9,000 BC in parts of present day Romania and Iraq. Not only were goats and sheep comfort loving and quick to breed, they were also very destructive in the fields. A sheep could clear the weight of one hundred pounds of greenery in one week. This destructive nature may have also been a valuable asset for clearing new land. The necessity for more and more green food meant herders would have had to keep their sheep on the move in search of more food.
The pig would arrive on the scene roughly 2,000 years later. Since pigs could not digest straw, leaves, twigs or grass like the ruminants, they were not a threat to the fields. Further, since they did enjoy the same food as humans, villagers had to assure a surplus of food before sharing with the pig.
The cow was the last of the four major food animals to be domesticated. It is believed that this took place in Macedonia or Turkey some time between 6,100 BC and 5,800 BC. If the ancestral version of the cow, which died out in the seventeenth century, were anything like our modern version, it would be agile and fiery. These characteristics may have been brought under control by close penning, poor feeding, and with the males, castration.
As animal domestication continued, and settlers learned more about their new furry friends, they realized the animals could provide them with many goods. Apart from meat, the goat provided glossy, waterproof hair and skin that acted as the first waterproof container. The sheep would supply considerable amounts of fat used for cooking and medicinal salves, as well as wool. A pig provided bristles as well as lard and skin. Finally, the cow would provide strong, rough skin and dung that would fuel their fire. However, the benefits of domestication would not stop here. Early humans soon learned that these animals could be used to sow seeds into the soil, thresh the grain, and later down the road, pull a plough. These transforming farmers had found their first power tools.
The Emergence of Dairy
You might notice that a large asset of the cow was not mentioned in the previous paragraph- milk. It is probably through observation and trial and error that humans first began to ingest the milk of another animal. Over time, use of milk took on many forms fitting for a time without cooling or pasteurization.
In a climate such as the Near East, milk would perish within a few hours. How the milk would change, and the curds developed would depend on the temperature and the type of bacteria in the air. The result may have been a pleasant and refreshing substance, or one that was rancid or even poisonous. There were also variations in curd sizes. A smaller type would have eventually turned into sharp, creamy substance similar to the yoghurt of the Balkans and the dahi of India. A courser curd would make a softer, fresher cheese. Even before the days of pottery we can assume that a firmer cheese emerged. Pastoral nomads of Central Asia used animal stomachs as bags. A calf's stomach contains an enzyme rennin that produces the curdling agent rennet. Milk carried in a calf's stomach therefore would turn into cheese on its own accord.
It is thought that butter would have emerged in cooler climates. It is quite possible that a traveler carrying a container of milk might find it turning into butter along their journey, eventually giving rise to the idea of churning. In parts of India it was discovered that heating it, evaporating the water, and straining off the impurities could extend the life of the butter (Ghee), with the idea of adding salt gaining root in Europe. These discoveries of curds, cheese, yoghurt and butter all developed as ways of preserving milk, and at the time served as surpluses to people's requirement. It was not until recently when farmers learned that they could manipulate their animals into giving milk most of the year, and until the development of refrigeration, that one could enjoy a tall, cool glass of milk.
In a climate such as the Near East, milk would perish within a few hours. How the milk would change, and the curds developed would depend on the temperature and the type of bacteria in the air. The result may have been a pleasant and refreshing substance, or one that was rancid or even poisonous. There were also variations in curd sizes. A smaller type would have eventually turned into sharp, creamy substance similar to the yoghurt of the Balkans and the dahi of India. A courser curd would make a softer, fresher cheese. Even before the days of pottery we can assume that a firmer cheese emerged. Pastoral nomads of Central Asia used animal stomachs as bags. A calf's stomach contains an enzyme rennin that produces the curdling agent rennet. Milk carried in a calf's stomach therefore would turn into cheese on its own accord.
It is thought that butter would have emerged in cooler climates. It is quite possible that a traveler carrying a container of milk might find it turning into butter along their journey, eventually giving rise to the idea of churning. In parts of India it was discovered that heating it, evaporating the water, and straining off the impurities could extend the life of the butter (Ghee), with the idea of adding salt gaining root in Europe. These discoveries of curds, cheese, yoghurt and butter all developed as ways of preserving milk, and at the time served as surpluses to people's requirement. It was not until recently when farmers learned that they could manipulate their animals into giving milk most of the year, and until the development of refrigeration, that one could enjoy a tall, cool glass of milk.
Honey
Although the distinct origins of honey are, naturally, unclear, it is believed that it was first discovered in Central Asia and spread from there by nomadic peoples. In Egypt, there are tomb reliefs dating back to the third millennium BC showing people smoking bees from their nests. Honey soon gained popularity, much for the same reasons it is popular today. It tastes delightful, it possesses energy-giving properties, and it is easily fermented into tasty intoxicating liquids (Mead). Although honey was not the only sweetener of the time, it remained supreme until the middle ages. In England it remained as an unbeatable sweetener until bees were kept solely for candle making in the monasteries. Other sweeteners around the globe included date and fig syrup, malted grains, grape juice, and some sugar cane.
More to Come
Even though the basics of the human diet have been covered, there is still much more to explore to get us to our healthy diets of today. It is amazing to think that our ancestors spent much of their short lives hunting animals and gathering what was around, that would not kill them, and how now we can receive amazing produce from all climates at any time of the year appearing like magic on our front steps. Stay tuned to learn more about how joyous fruits like apples and healthful veggies like kale made their way into our diets, helping us live longer, healthier lives.
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